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 Classification:   UNCLASSIFIED       Status:        [STAT]
 Document Date:    01 Aug 90          Category:      [CAT]
 Report Type: JPRS Report             Report Date:
 Report Number:    JPRS-UKO-90-015    UDC Number:
 Author(s):  Leonid Grishchuk, doctor of physical and mathematical
 sciences, chief of department, State Astronomy Institute
 imeni P.K. Shternberg]
 Headline:  Boundaries of Cosmology
 Source Line:  915B0001I Moscow KOMMUNIST in Russian No 12, Aug 90
 (signed to press 1 Aug 90) pp 81-89
 Subslug:   [Article by Leonid Grishchuk, doctor of physical and
 mathematical sciences, chief of department, State Astronomy
 Institute imeni P.K. Shternberg]
 FULL TBBT OF ARTICLE:
 1.  [Article by Leonid Grishchuk, doctor of physical and mathematical
 sciences, chief of department, State Astronomy Institute imeni P.K.
 Shternberg]
 2.  [Text] For many decades, scientific policy in our society has
 suffered distortions and deformations, t e  orm    ex reme man-ifesta on
 of which was the persecution not only of individual scientists, but
 also of entire scientific fields. To make up for this, there was no
 shortage of optimistic forecasts and expectations that science would
 become a direct production force and, when this happens, would
 scatter benefits as though from the horn of plenty.
 3.  Today, we are realizing our lag behind the world level in a
 number of directions of basic research, the loss of interest in the
 achievements of various areas of knowledge, the spread of a skeptical
 attitude toward scientists, who are forced to substantiate the need
 to develop science via references to the fact that its current level
 determines tomorrow's equipment, technology and material progress.
 Recently, there was talk of a need to stop financing space research.
 It was saved by showing its contribution to the economy. Of course,
 this utilitarian approach is in many ways stipulated by the labor
 structure of our economy. However, we must not forget about the
 influence that the advancement of knowledge has on man's intellectual
 and cultural level. In the big picture, this is really the main
 result of assimilating the achievements of scientific thought!
 4.  In turn, the attitude toward basic research and the understanding
 of its role in social progress depend on the level of culture. In a
 rule-of-law state, this dependency is obvious: the opinion of the
 UNCLASSIFIED        Approved or Release
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 masses shapes scientific policy.
 5.  There are serious flaws precisely here. As experience with giving
 popular lectures indicates, even in an environment of people with
 higher educations, questions about "flying saucers," "space
 aliens," etc. are most widespread. A segment of the audience
 believes that basic science studies these things. Another
 manifestation of the disoriented understanding of science's role and
 place is the persistent call for its universal conversion to
 cost-accounting. Here, it must be said that cost-accounting relations
 in science are needed to some extent, yet they do conceal a threat to
 basic research.  Cost-accounting increases the priority of applied
 development work, leads to an outflow of capable people and creates a
 threat to basic work, which does not promise rapid application in the
 economy. Such an approach could undermine society's intellectual
 potential. To put it directly, basic science needs and will need
 state protection and support in a social atmosphere which is
 favorable toward its development.
 6.  Under this new situation, we cannot get by with just repeating
 and illustrating the truth: science is useful.  Broad discussion is
 needed, not only on the problems of effective organization of
 research and on the moral and social responsibility of scientists,
 but also, probably, to illuminate the boundaries that have been
 reached in our understanding of the surroun  ng worl-..This was noted
 at the 19th All-Union Party Conference. There is no shortage of
 appeals for central publications to set aside more space for the
 problems of science. However, the matter is at a standstill for the
 time being.
 7.  These are the motives which direct me to talk about what the
 Universe is, as well as about cosmology, the science of the Universe
 and the subject of my own professional work. I am certain that there
 is a deep general human interest in its structure, its past and its
 future.
 9.  For more than 20 centuries, people put the Earth at the center of
 the universe, surrounding it with immobile stars. The Sun and planets
 were given a secondary role. It was believed that the Sun revolved in
 strictly circular orbits around the Earth. It was hard for people to
 become accustomed to the idea that the Earth is an ordinary planet.
 10. The explanation of the motion of the heavenly bodies and even
 the prediction of new planets in the Solar System was the triumph of
 the Newtonian theory of gravitation. Later, the study of the stars
 and star systems followed. The idea that the Sun is an ordinary star
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 did not come easily either. Relatively recently, scientists presumed
 that the Sun was located near the center of our star system, our
 Galaxy, beyond the boundaries of which, possibly, there was nothing.
 Nothing was known for sure about the existence of any formations
 whatsoever beyond our own Galaxy. Only in the 1920s-1930s, thanks to
 rapid progress in the development of observation equipment, was it
 finally proven that there are a number of other stellar systems and
 galaxies outside our Galaxy.
 11.  Approximately in these years, it was discovered that the Sun is
 located in a by no means remarkable area, almost on the edge of our
 own disk-shaped Galaxy. (Looking at its basic mass of stars at night,
 we see the Milky Way in the sky.)
 12.  The understanding that things in space are not at all calm also
 came with difficulty. The stars are moving within the galaxies, and
 the galaxies are moving relative to each other. Explosive processes,
 releasing a tremendous amount of energy, often occur in space.
 13.  In the area of space accessible to modern optical and radio
 telescopes, many, many millions of galaxies are observed. Although
 they differ in terms of form, mass, and star content, they can be
 considered the basic structural units of the Universe. Galaxies are
 combined into groups, accumulations and structures on an even greater
 --
 scale. In the distribution of a number of conglomera  ons, Stretched
 and flat elements are being discovered, as well as great empty spaces
 where, with the achieved level of sensitivity of observation
 equipment, no galaxies at all are visible. Graphically speaking, the
 distribution of galaxies has a porous or net-like structure, i.e.,
 the empty areas alternate with -walls" and "threads," where the
 basic share of luminous matter is concentrated. The galaxies
 themselves are fairly flat and distinctly outlined formations, but as
 one moves to structures ever greater in scale, the outlines and
 localization of these structures become ever more vague. There is no
 designated place whatsoever in the distribution of these galaxies
 that could be considered the center of the Universe, and there is no
 designated direction whatsoever that could be considered an axis of
 symmetry for the Universe. On this grounds, we say that the
 observable Universe is homogeneous and isotropic.
 14.  The most distant of the observable objects is about 10 billion
 light-years away us. It is several light-years to the closest stars
 in our own galaxy. The intermediate distances could be described as
 follows: the diameter of our galaxy is almost 100,000 light-years.
 This number exceeds the distance to the nearest stars by a factor of
 several tens of thousands, and our galaxy is not one of the smaller
 ones. The dimension of the average concentration of galaxies is even
 larger, by a factor of 100, and may exceed tens of millions of light
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 years. The dimensions of.the most distinct details in the
 distribution of "thread" type galaxies and of empty areas is
 greater still, by a factor of 10 or several tens. However, the sizes
 of these parts are nonetheless smaller by a factor of 50-100 than the
 sizes of the entire observable part of the Universe. According to
 existing data, the hierarchy of structures does not continue without
 limit, but gradually disappears.
 15.  There are data about the possible existence of nonluminous
 matter in the Universe, the so-called hidden mass.  Its average
 density may exceed the average density of luminous matter,
 concentrated in stars and galaxies, by a factor of about 10. For the
 time being, it is unknown in what form this matter (concealed mass),
 which is hard to observe, exists and whether or not its spatial
 distribution coincides with the distribution of galaxies.
 16.  It is an observed fact of great significance that the system of
 galaxies is not static, but expanding. Of course, individual galaxies
 and compact concentrations form stable gravitationally-related
 systems and do not expand.  The law of expansion is more clearly
 established for the system of accumulations of galaxies. Usually, the
 brightest members of these accumulations, usually located at the
 center, and individual galaxies, which are not part of groups or
 accumulations, are visible. The sum total of all such galaxies forms
 a sort of grid, extending uniformly on al                      ndous----
 number of observations, it follows that for any pair of such objects
 the speed of their separation from each other is proportional to the
 distance between them. We can at least apply this simple law to
 galaxies for which the speed, entering into this correlation, is less
 than the speed of light. For more remote objects, the effect of the
 special and general theories of relativity are important and the
 concepts of speed and distance require elaboration.
 17.  The coefficient of proportionality between the speed of
 dispersion of galaxies and the distance between them is called the
 Hubble constant. The inverse value has the dimension of time and is
 called the age of the Universe.  This name is used because, in flying
 apart with a constant relative velocity, any pair of objects would in
 this time manage to increase the reciprocal distance from zero to the
 value now observed. According to contemporary data, the age of the
 Universe is about 10-20 billion years. Independent estimates of the
 age of individual astronomical systems are known: of the Solar
 System, the stars, stellar concentrations, and galaxies. These
 estimates are based on data about their relative content of different
 chemical elements and on the theory of stellar evolution. The
 estimated age of the Solar System is five billion years, and the age
 of the oldest spherical stellar accumulations and, indirectly, of the
 galaxies is 11-13 billion years.
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 18.  During expansion, the average density of matter decreases and,
 consequently, it was denser and hotter in the pre-galactic epoch. It
 is possible to say with certainty that 10-20 billion years ago the
 Universe was not at all like that which we now observe. This
 conclusion is persuasively confirmed by the existence of the
 so-called relic radiation, discovered using radio telescopes in 1965.
 It is distinguished from the radiation of isolated objects by the
 fact that it comes not from separate sources, but from all
 directions, uniformly filling the entire celestial sphere. Its
 temperature is about three degrees on the absolute scale. The
 properties of this radiation are identical everywhere, regardless of
 at which point in the sky the instruments are aimed. Only slight
 variations in temperature have been discovered, on the level of a
 tenth of a percent, caused by the movement of the Sun and Earth
 relative to the background of this radiation. In the direction in
 which the Solar System is moving, the temperature is slightly
 greater, and in the opposite direction--slightly below average. The
 relic radiation could not have been created by the activity of
 individual stars and galaxies, but remains as a trace (relic) from
 the pre-galactic epoch. In this epoch, the average density of matter
 was greater by a factor of billions, and the temperature of radiation
 was greater than it is now by a factor of a thousand.'During the
 expansion of pre-galactic matter, the relic radiation cooled down and
 its temperature decreased to the value now obser-ve~ic  Dina to ---
 gravitational instability, slight heterogeneities developed in the
 matter itself, which finally led to the formation of separate objects
 and the now-observed structures in the distribution of galaxies and
 conglomerations of them.
 19.  The idea that pre-galactic matter was quite homogeneous is
 confirmed by the high degree of similarity of the temperature of the
 relic radiation on all angular scales. It should be recalled that
 light and radio waves, which give the basic observational information
 about the Universe, travel at a finite velocity, the speed of light.
 Therefore, the further away their source is located, the earlier the
 stage of existence at which we see it. To put it figuratively, in
 observing a source, far from us at a great distance, we are looking
 into the past. Relic radiation covers tremendous distances, spreading
 virtually without absorption or dispersion. It actively interacted
 only with the primary pre-galactic plasma, after which it began to
 spread freely. If there had been significant variations in density
 and temperature in pre-galactic matter, right now the observed
 temperature distribution would be heterogeneous and "spotty."
 20.  Yet another set of observed information, an important component
 part of our concepts about the contemporary and early Universe,
 concerns the chemical make-up of the matter surrounding us. The most
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 common element is hydrogen. It makes up about 75 percent of the
 overall mass of matter. Virtually all the rest is helium. The
 numerous light and heavy elements encountered in nature are
 represented only in parts of a percent. Altogether, they barely
 contribute two percent to the overall mass of matter. From this point
 of view, planets and life on them, built out of heavy elements, are
 an extraordinarily great rarity.
 21.  Elements from carbon to iron arise as a product of thermonuclear
 reactions in the cores of stars during the calm stage of their
 evolution. The heavier elements are formed during supernova-type
 explosive processes. As the result of the explosions of massive
 stars, rapidly ending their evolution, various chemical' elements
 enter the interstellar gases.
 22.  Helium and certain other light elements have pre-stellar
 origins. This follows from the fact that, during the entire existence
 of the Galaxy, only roughly 15 times less helium, than that which is
 in fact observed, could have appeared. The required quantity of
 helium could easily have been formed in the epoch of so-called
 primary nucleosynthesis, when the density of pre-galactic matter
 reached values typical of the density of nuclear matter.  Let us
 recall that relic radiation began to spread freely about 10-20
 billion years ago.
 23.  Theory and Extrapolations
 24.  The basic physical theories form the theoretical foundation for
 cosmology. Historically, the concept of a nonstationary universe was
 first suggested by our fellow countryman A.A. Fridman, even before
 experimental evidence of the phenomenon of "dispersion" of
 galaxies.  In his theoretical works, A.A. Fridman proceeded from the
 simplest assumptions about the homogeneity and isotropy of the
 continuous distribution of matter with a positive density and a very
 slight pressure. Using the equations of A. Einstein's relativistic
 theory of gravitation, A.A.  Fridman proved that the corresponding
 solutions mandatorily depend on time.  It was not immediately
 realized that the non-stationary nature of such systems is completely
 natural and inevitable. It is identically warranted both in
 relativistic theory, as well as in the usual Newtonian theory of
 gravitation. In the absence of decreases in pressure or any other
 forces capable of opposing gravity, no ordinary substance can be
 eternally in a state of rest. Depending on initial conditions, it can
 either slowly expand or contract. The final fate of an expanding
 gravitational system depends on whether the average density of matter
 is great enough that the forces of gravity will slow down the
 expansion and, in the future, turn expansion into compression. If the
 average density of matter is greater than a certain value, called the
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 critical value, expansion will be replaced by compression: otherwise
 it will continue without limit. Obviously, the critical value of
 density is determined by the rate of expansion and is expressed in
 the Hubble constant. According to contemporary data, the average
 density of all types of matter (including the hidden mass) in the
 observed Universe is close to the critical value.
 25. The averaged, smoothed-over distribution of matter of the
 galaxies in the observed Universe is well described by Fridman's
 cosmological solutions and Fridman's models. Why we are observing
 precisely expansion, and not compression, is a separate question,
 which cosmologists are now examining.
 26.  According to Fridman's solutions, it is possible to calculate
 the course of the change in both density and temperature in the
 future, as well as in the past. Using these calculations, G. Gamov
 designed a theory of primary (pre-stellar, pre-galactic)
 nucleosynthesis and predicted that the contemporary Universe ought to
 be full of electromagnetic radiation at a temperature of about six
 degrees. Although the actual discovery of three-degree (relic)
 radiation occurred accidentally, beyond any connection to G. Gamov's
 prediction, in principle its existence was expected.  Interpretation
 of the relic radiation has not caused serious difficulties, the more
 so since the actual value of the temperature does not differ too
 greatly from the predicted value.
 27. The successful prediction of the relative content of chemical
 elements, coinciding with the content actually observed, also relies
 considerably on the laws for the change of density and temperature
 with time. In turn, these laws on the whole depend on the forces of
 gravity, since precisely gravity determines the behavior of large
 masses of matter. Thus, gravitation field theory plays an important
 role in cosmology.
 28.  It is possible to roughly describe the volumes of the Universe
 with small dimensions using ordinary classical mechanics and the
 Newtonian theory of gravity. However, for distances comparable to the
 scale of the observable Universe, the Newtonian theory is not
 suitable.  Cosmology has to be relativistic and relies on the
 conclusions of the special and general theories of relativity.  Here,
 the concepts of time and space hold an especially important place.
 29. The special theory of relativity has changed the old concepts of
 pre-relativistic physics concerning time and space. Absolute time,
 "flowing uniformly and independent of anything external," turned
 out to be overly idealized. According to the special theory of
 relativity, the judgments of observers about the interval of time and
 the segment of distance. between one and the same pair of events
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 depends on the movement of the observers. For different observers,
 the time intervals and segments of distance between one and the same
 pair of events, generally speaking, are different. There is no one
 correct set of values whatsoever: all sets of values are right, and
 each of the observers is correct to an equal extent. Only a certain
 combination, consisting of the time intervals and segments of
 distance, remains identical for all.  Therefore, it is said that
 unified space-time has an independent value, but not time or space
 separately. The change of views of space and time has occurred, in
 part, because the procedure itself for measuring spatial segments and
 time intervals has been analyzed.
 30.  The general theory of relativity, i.e., the relativistic theory
 of gravitation, introduced even more cardinal changes in the concept
 of space and time. Once again, certain questions hold an important
 place in understanding it: Vhat, with what and how is it measured?
 Observers who are resting with respect to each other, yet are located
 in places where the gravitational field is different, will discover
 by comparing their observations that the rate of flow of time for
 them is different. Such conclusions also occur with regard to
 segments of length.  The conclusions of the general theory of
 relativity conform quite well to all existing experimental data, both
 under laboratory conditions, as well as in space.
 31.  Judgments about the geometric proper ffes o-f -a given sur ace are
 made on the basis of correlations between segments of length which
 connect points of this surface.  Judgments about the geometric
 properties of space-time are made on the basis of how the time
 intervals and segments of length between events in space-time behave.
 Since, in the presence of a gravitational field, length and durations
 do not behave as they do in the absence of a gravitational field, the
 geometric properties of space-time change.  That is,,why the concept
 of warped space-time, the idea of its curvature, atises. Giving a
 detailed description of a gravitational field is the same as giving a
 detailed description of the geometric properties of space-time.
 32.  In cosmology, the concept of warped space-time plays a central
 role. In geometric terms, one could say that the cosmological model
 in which the average density of matter is greater than the critical
 value conforms to a closed space, similar to the surface of a sphere.
 A model in which the average density of matter is less than the
 critical value conforms to the so-called open or Lobachevskiy's
 space. On the boundary between these two cases, i.e., in a situation
 where the average density of matter equals the critical density,
 there is a model where space has ordinary Euclidean geometry. As
 already mentioned, the estimates of density in the observed Universe
 give a value, close to the value of the critical density. For now, it
 is impossible to choose between these three geometries of space. In
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 any case, the definition of the geometry of space would be local in
 nature, i.e., it would directly relate only to the observed part of
 the Universe.
 33.  Pridman's cosmological solutions postulate homogeneity and
 isotropy as universal and eternal properties. Direct observational
 information about the Universe relates only to a limited area, both
 in time, as well as in space.  In the area encompassed by
 observations, these properties really exist, although only with a
 certain degree of precision. However, cosmology is interested in the
 structure of the Universe on the whole, i.e., with the utmost
 conceivable distances and time intervals. Therefore, extrapolations
 are often used, true, inevitably of limited trustworthiness.
 Nonetheless, in using the observational data and a theory, tested in
 other observations and experiments, it is possible to draw meaningful
 conclusions about epochs and areas of the Universe which are not
 observed directly here right now. In this manner, for instance, we
 succeed in drawing conclusions about the structure of the Universe on
 scales exceeding its observable dimensions by a factor of 50-100.
 34.  On the grounds of this analysis, it can be claimed that on the
 tremendous scales mentioned, inaccessible to contemporary
 observations, the deviations from homogeneity and isotropy are not
 overly great.  More accurately, the relative deviations of all
 cosmological values do not exceed one unit. On even greater   as ec   s,
 it is no longer possible to say this. The above argument does not
 rule out that the properties of the Universe on such great scales may
 be considerably different. There are interesting theoretical
 considerations to the effect that, on the utmost greatest scales, the
 structure of the Universe may be extraordinarily complex. Even
 violations of the properties of connection of space, the appearance
 of differences in the dimensionality of space, a change in the
 numerical values of fundamental constants, etc., are also not ruled
 out. Although, at this level of knowledge these considerations are
 highly hypothetical.
 35.  The question of the structure of the Universe on very large
 scales is supplemented by the question of the properties of the
 Universe at the very earliest stage of its evolution. The uncertainty
 in the answer to this question partly relates to the fact that the
 properties of matter under tremendous densities, exceeding nuclear
 density by many orders, are unknown. It would be especially important
 to clarify the amount and the sign of pressure in this matter. The
 point is that pressure is capable of creating gravity, just the same
 as it creates the energy density of ordinary matter. This is an
 effect of the relativistic theory of gravitation: it does not exist
 in the Newtonian theory. Under ordinary conditions, pressure is
 insignificant and additional gravitational forces are small. In any
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 case, pressure which is positive in sign can only slow the rate of
 expansion through its gravitational influence. Given other identical
 conditions, a gas possessing a high positive pressure will expand
 somewhat more slowly than under conditions of the same energy
 density, but less pressure. However, the situation changes
 significantly if states of matter with negative pressure are
 possible, moreover, great negative pressure in terms of the absolute
 amount. Then, matter would expand not with deceleration, but with
 acceleration.
 36.  Modern elementary particle theories predict that in the very
 early Universe a state of matter with a negative pressure really
 could have existed, and it would have been equal to the absolute
 value of the density of energy.  In this case, an accelerated rate of
 expansion occurs, known as inflationary expansion. If such a stage
 really occurred in the evolution of the very early Universe, it
 explains several fundamental facts. Let us point out some them.
 37.  As already stated above, the temperature of the relic radiation
 coming from different directions in the celestial sphere is identical
 with great precision. This fact in itself is rather surprising.
 According to the ordinary Fridman solutions, not involving the
 hypothesis of an inflationary stage of expansion, the indicated
 elements of the primary plasma would not be in a cause-effect
 relationship to each other. No physical process what never-could
 ensure the identical nature of conditions in these elements, yet*
 nonetheless for some reason they had an identical temperature.
 Therefore, one must assume that the initial conditions were such. The
 inflationary expansion hypothesis offers a more natural explanation
 for this fact. The entire volume of primary plasma could have
 developed in the stage of accelerated expansion from matter, which
 had occupied a small cause-effect area. In other words, the causal
 connection between all elements of the primary plasma, now
 observable, could have been established in the inflationary stage of
 expansion. This makes the sameness of the observable temperature more
 understandable.
 38.  Another advantage of the inflationary hypothesis relates to the
 explanation of the origin of primary perturbations in the density of
 matter. As already noted, in the pre-galactic epoch of expansion such
 perturbations should have existed, so that in the future they could
 lead to the observed objects and structures. In the usual approach,
 the properties of such perturbations do not proceed from general
 theory, but are postulated. In particular, the amplitude of
 perturbations is selected such that we obtain the observed structure.
 The inflationary hypothesis offers a more natural explanation. In the
 inflationary stage, it turns out, perturbations could have developed
 from inevitable fluctuations of a quantum nature. This decreases the
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 number of necessary assumptions. Comparison of all conclusions from
 such a concept to what is observed is one of the most actively
 developing fields of cosmological research today.
 39.  Finally, the existence of a stage with a great negative pressure
 gives hope for explaining cosmological expansion itself. As already
 stated, at this stage the forces of gravitation accelerate expansion,
 not slow it down. The gravitating system is brought from a state of
 rest to one of expansion, not of compression.
 40.  The hypothesis of an inflationary stage of expansion is just one
 example of the close intertwining between modern cosmology and modern
 basic physics. The problems relating to the micro- and macro-world
 connect into a unified set of problems. Possibly, here we must seek
 an answer to the question of how the Universe was born. In recent
 years, this has become the object of specific research.
 41.  There are at least two groups of ideas. First, there is a set of
 theoretical and observational arguments supporting the idea that the
 history of the Universe began from a kind of special state, not
 subject to description within the framework of the classical
 relativistic theory of gravity.  Really, extrapolations of the
 observed expansion into the past, according to ordinary Fridman
 solutions, in the end lead to infinite values for all physical
 quantities: density of energy, pressure, sera-in of-  ie grav  a  onal----
 field, etc. A state characterized by such values is called a
 singularity. Classical concepts of length and duration no longer
 apply for its study. This area of research has been singled out as an
 independent discipline, quantum cosmology. Thus, a concept arises
 about the quantum birth of a classical Universe and classical
 space-time.
 42.  The second group of ideas relates to persistent attempts by
 theoreticians to create a unified theory for all physical
 interactions. The inclusion of gravitation in existing theoretical
 schemes makes it necessary to involve complex theoretical
 constructions, such as multidimensional spaces, super-symmetry,
 super-strings, etc. It is important that, as for other fields,
 quantum laws should form the basis for describing gravitational
 .interaction. The classical gravitational field and the related
 classical space-time are approximations, justifiable under certain
 conditions.
 43.  Both above-mentioned groups of ideas are being actively
 developed right now. In the first, the emphasis is placed on
 cosmology; in the second--on microphysics. It may be possible that
 the secret of the origin of the Universe will be discovered when both
 approaches merge into one.
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 44. The boundaries of the known and the hypothetical, which I have
 tried to talk about, are very mobile. It is possible that tomorrow
 they will be different: such are the rates of our renewal of
 knowledge.
 45.  It must be said that research on the Universe has always been
 accompanied by the appearance of questions, going beyond the
 framework of cosmological science. Let us recall the fate of the
 Dominican monk Jordano Bruno, burned at the stake by the Inquisition
 in 1600. The mercilessness of the reprisals against him were not
 immediately understood. After all, it would seem, the conflict was
 based on highly abstract ideas about the infinite nature of space and
 the multiplicity of habitable worldsl It is hard to establish the
 connection to everyday life. Nevertheless, his opinions undermined
 established concepts, sanctified by the Church. If the heretic was
 not condemned, doubts would arise not only in the accepted picture of
 the world, but also in the infallibility of the Church and power.
 46. This tragic page of history illustrates the sharp world-outlook
 and ideological struggle surrounding cosmological assertions, also
 occurring in our time, for instance, surrounding the question of the
 causes of a singular state (is this the work of God?). Man began to
 think about the origin of the world long ago. The images from the
 material culture of primitive societies aafes-tfo--tfiis-   ----------
 47.  Mankind has been living in the space age, started by the flight
 of Yu. Gagarin, for almost 30 years. We are seeing farther and we
 know more, we are approaching a fundamentally new understanding of
 the Universe that is now facing the "world of men." Researching it
 requires the participation of representatives of almost all sciences,
 including humanitarians. It is a question both of ensuring space
 flights, as well as of resolving a whole number of fundamental
 problems, for instance, the problem of the existence of non-Earth
 civilizations.  Certain experience in interaction and some practical
 scientific experience has accumulated here. However, this is a topic
 for yet another author.
 48.  COPYRIGHT: Izdatelstvo TsK KPSS ''Pravda'', " Kommunist" , 1990.

